Writing a Behavior Reflective Essay

Writing a Behavior Reflective EssayA good way to move forward with the writing of your reflection essay is to prepare a simple exercise which focuses on effective and non-negotiable questions that you are seeking to answer in your essay. These questions are easy to set out, so you can start by writing them down on a piece of paper and then working on them until you have developed a systematic approach to using them throughout your essay.A typical response to these questions is to cite supporting documents or data. This is the key. You should never be shy to direct the reader's attention to certain kinds of evidence. It's not necessary to use all of them but, once you have used some, it helps to have one source that you will point out each time you need to cite evidence.Other responses involve arguing your position by using your research as a springboard for other passages in your essay; citing supporting case studies; using quotations and anecdotes; and even copying from existing lit erature. These responses will help you make the most of your essay and bring out the best in you as a writer. However, in order to get the most out of these techniques you should be able to develop and implement a set of solid standards of writing that you can follow to make sure that you are following the right strategy from the start.This involves identifying your own style and personal style when it comes to writing and then using the tips and techniques that have been outlined here to develop an outline for the different areas of your writing. When you work through this outline with a fine tooth comb you will be able to identify where you are going wrong and you will also be able to adjust the kind of writing you are doing to ensure that you reach the high standards you set out for yourself.The first step in this process is to understand how the basic structure of your essay will go. You need to write your essay in the form of a thought-out narrative, so this means that you need to identify the main points of the essay as well as other points that you will support.This will be a critical component of the essay. Once you identify the main points then you can build the rest of the essay around these and tie them together in various ways. The essay is then complete when it has gone through this whole process, which is a very involved and detailed process that takes time and thought.To summarise, an essay is structured around three main sections. You will have a starting section, a concluding section and a conclusion. Each of these parts builds on the others and also supports the other two sections in a variety of ways.If you can identify these three parts of the reflection essay, then you can be confident that your writing will be better. This will allow you to write more clearly and to use more powerful phrases when you are writing.

General Belisarius - Byzantine Military Hero

This profile of Belisarius is part ofWhos Who in Medieval History   Byzantine Military Hero Being the leading Byzantine general during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. He won significant battles against the Persians and Ostrogoths, suppressed the Nike Revolt, and served his emperor with unstinting loyalty. Occupations: Military Leader Places of Residence and Influence: Byzantium (The Eastern Roman Empire) Important Dates: Born: 505Takes back the city of Rome: Dec. 9, 536Died: March, 565 About Belisarius: Belisarius served in Justinians bodyguard and earned a command in his mid-twenties. After distinguishing himself in several battles against the Sasanian Empire, he returned to Constantinople, where he quashed the Nike Revolt. Next he scored notable victories against Germanic peoples in his quest to win back Italy for Justinian. His subsequent successes against the Ostrogoths were overshadowed by political difficulties. He fell out of favor with the emperor and only his wifes friendship with the empress saved him. His later years were spent in relative peace. Find out more about the generals life and achievements in your Guides Concise Biography of General Belisarius. Myths About Belisarius: A great deal of misinformation was generated about Belisarius centuries after his death. One notable story had him blinded by Justinian and wandering the streets as a beggar. There is absolutely no truth to these stories, but they have served as the basis for epic tales, novels and plays. More Belisarius Resources: Concise Biography of General BelisariusGeneral Belisarius on the Web BelisariusConcise overview at Infoplease.Gothic War: Byzantine Count Belisarius Retakes RomeComprehensive overview of the Byzantine generals attempt to retake the city of Rome from the Goths, by Erik Hildinger at Military History magazine, online at TheHistoryNet. ByzantiumMedieval WarfareMedieval Military Leaders QuizChronological Index Geographical Index Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society The text of this document is copyright  ©2007-2016 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is  not  granted to reproduce this document on another website. For publication permission,  please   contact  Melissa Snell. The URL for this document is:http://historymedren.about.com/od/bwho/p/who_belisarius.htm

Sugar Revolution - 2658 Words

The Sugar Revolution In the seventeenth century both in the English and to a lesser extent in the French islands, a change occurred in the basic cash crop. This change was so rapid and far-reaching that ‘revolutionary’ is a fitting word to describe it. It ranks in importance with emancipation, for the sugar revolution changed the Lesser Antilles completely. It was not just that sugar replaced tobacco as the chief crop: the population changed from white to black; the size of landholdings changed; and eventually the West Indies became ‘the cockpit of Europe’. The list of changes the sugar revolution brought is almost inexhaustible. The sugar revolution is most clearly demonstrated in the history of Barbados where it occurred in roughly one†¦show more content†¦The Dutch traders and captains were looking for ways by which to increase their trade and they saw that encouraging the planting of sugar was a great opportunity. Sugar needed capital which the small planters of the eastern Caribbean did not have, but the Dutch came to the rescue by supplying credit. A Dutch merchant would put up the capital on the security of the crop. In this way many planters started. The Dutch took over the export and sale of the crop in return for providing the initial capital. Not only highly specialised labour, but also the ordinary manual labour was provided by the Dutch as the slave trade was in their hands. The Dutch brought slaves from West Africa to the West Indies at the rate of about 3000 per year. It has been said that the Dutch made the West Indies black. At least they started off the process which led to a decline 105 CSEC_BK1-pp104-138_cmh2.indd 105 6/1/08 20:27:13 in the white population and a meteoric rise in the black. England could not have provided these essentials for the development of the sugar industry. In any case the English system was not one of supporting the West Indian colonies through a wealthy company or through the government. Colonies and their plantations were individual enterprises which were expected to manage on their own. Results of the change in land use Land tenure Tobacco had been grown by small planters on smallholdings of between 5 and 30 acresShow MoreRelatedsugar revolution1746 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effects that the Sugar Revolution had on the 18th century Caribbean Society The Sugar became population in the West Indies. The English, French colonies who settled Caribbean island such as St.kitts in the early 16th grew tobacco in order to make money. For a little while they were able to make the profit. However by 1640’s the faced different competition from tobacco grower in virgina had certain advantages which are virgiana had large lots of fertile land. Virginia tobacco was cheaper andRead MoreThe Roles of Globalization in Timothy Brook’s Vermeer’s Hat and Sidney Mintz’s Sweetness and Power791 Words   |  3 PagesTimothy Brook’s Vermeer’s Hat and Sidney Mintz’s Sweetness and Power deal with the role of commodities in world history. Mintz analyzes the history of sugar production and consumption in Europe. Mintz discusses how the fall of sugar as a luxurious and exotic product to a necessity for the most common of the working class was able to command a revolution in diet and lifestyle, during industrial ization and the rise of capitalism. Brook tells the story of tobacco’s route from the Americas to Europe. AsRead MoreThe Consumption Of Fast Food Essay1608 Words   |  7 Pagesin refined sugars and fermentable carbohydrates instead of natural foods such as fruits, vegetables and nuts. The fast food industry promotes convenience and consumption of soft drinks and snacks in between meals. The continuous sugar intake during the day promotes increased levels of bacteria producing acid which attacks the enamel of teeth. Biological mechanisms to clear the acid, such as saliva cannot prevent the ultimately increased risk of tooth decay against this increased sugar intake. AsRead MoreThe Production And Discovery Of Sugar And Its Amazing Taste And Capabilities Essay1390 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscovery of sugar grasped civilizations by its amazing taste and capabilities. Sugars effect on farming changed how the Americas farm to this day, and has also created huge trade exchanges be tween continents and countries . One of the main reasons for slavery to exist for so long in the Americas was because of sugars high demand. So plantation owners had to search for more sustainable workers which led them to Africa. The constant bringing of workers expanded trade in the 1500s. Sugar also led toRead MoreThe Production And Discovery Of Sugar Essay1395 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscovery of sugar have grasped civilizations by its amazing taste and capabilities.Sugars effect on farming changed how the Americas farm to this day,and has also created huge trade exchanges between continents and countries .One of the main reasons for slavery to exist for so long in the Americas was because of sugars high demand and plantation owners search for more sustainable workers.It changed how we eat and how we use our world s resources. It led the way for modern innovations in sugar cultivationRead MorePotential Multifunctional Role Of Sugarcane Output10082 Words   |  41 PagesPakistan 18 4.3 Sugarcane By-Products and their uses 21 4.3.1 Uses of Bagasse 23 4.3.2 Molasses 26 4.3.3 Ethanol 28 4.3.4 Sugar 30 4.4 By-Products Production 31 4.4.1 Molasses 31 4.4.2 Ethanol 36 4.4.3 Bagasse 40 4.4.4 Bagasse Based Cogeneration 43 4.4.5 Bagasse Cogeneration - A Technical Overview 49 4.4.6 Sugar 51 4.5 Summary 54 †¢ Summary, Conclusion and Policy Recommendation 5.1 Summary of Study 55 5.2 Concluding Remarks andRead MoreSugar Alternatives in Foods and Beverages1339 Words   |  5 PagesIn recent years, sugar alternatives have become increasingly popular as a substitute for sugar in various foods and beverages. Sugar alternatives have similar uses as sugar such as providing taste, bulk, and texture [citation]. In a world where dieting and weight management grow ever more necessary, sugar alternatives are a non-caloric sweetener that can help with health goals. Sugar alternatives, based on their minimal glycemic effect, can also be important factors in reducing the symptoms ofRead MoreSweetness and Power by Sidney Mintz873 Words   |  4 Pagessocial history revolving around sugar consumption and production in Europe as well as its colonies, predominantly focusing on England. Mintz examines the structure of power, which made it probable for sugar to actually turn out to be the first luxury-turned-necessity that propelled a revolution within lifestyle and diet, principally within the working class in the upsurge of capitalism and Industrial Revolution. Mintz further argues that the contribution of sugar to several developed countriesRead MoreA Balanced Consumption Of Micronutrients4031 Words   |  17 Pagesfoundations in the development of human obesity. Sugar can be found in most fatty foods we eat today, therefore blamed by many to be the main causing factor of obesity. The â€Å"sugar† detailed in the Courrier Mail article is specified as table sugar, a disaccharide called sucrose, which is a made up of fructose and glucose. A statement by Tim Gill: â€Å"sugar can’t take the whole blame (obesity)† is correct because of the reasons mentioned in this essay. Although sugar in some form is naturally present in manyRead MoreEssay on Diabetes888 Words   |  4 Pagesusually ineffective in breaking down sugars in the body. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Present treatments for type one diabetes require lifelong care in order to keep blood sugar levels within a safe range. Some treatments include monitoring blood levels several times a day using a home blood sugar meter, taking several insulin injections everyday or using an insulin pump, eating a balanced diet that spreads carbohydrates (sugars) throughout the day to prevent high sugar levels after meals, regular medical

Limitation Of The Strengths And Repitations Of Human...

Many animals have the ability to restore their tissue after injury. Among the most fascinating vertebrate models are newts and axololts, which can regenerate their entire appendages. This intricately regulated process is mediated by the formation of the blastema. While much has been learned about limb regeneration in the past decades, several underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. A recent study by Sandoval-Guzman and colleagues has shed light on the regeneration of muscle in such salamander species. This review will briefly discuss the findings of the paper and compare the strengths and limitations of each research model. To study the regenerative capacity in the newt and axolotl after amputation, the authors employed a†¦show more content†¦Next, the authors sought to determine whether myofiber dedifferentiation was taking place during the early stages of regeneration. This was true in the newt species, as evidenced by the existence of YFP MHC positive cells in the stump region and the lack of such nuclei in the blastema. Furthermore, cells within the distal blastema were mononuclear and actively proliferating as determined by the PCNA and EdU assays. This finding prompted researchers to examine if myofiber dedifferentiation was paralleled in the axolotl. Surprisingly, YFP positive nuclei were restricted to the upper limb proximal to the amputation site, and absent in the lower limb and hand. This indicated that myofibers did not invade the blastema or contribute to limb regeneration. Moreover, such outcome was verified using a grafting experiment that transferred donor blastema â€Å"CAGGS: ert2-cre-ert2-T2A-nucGFP† to the upper arm tissue of the amputee host â€Å"CAGGS:loxp-GFP-STOP-loxp-Cherry†. The fusion of transgenic myoblast nuclei gave rise to a chimeric limb that expressed Cherry in its myofibers after treatment with tamoxifen. Subsequently, the newly formed limb was amputated and Cherry positive cells failed to colonize the regenerate tissue. With myofiber dedifferentiation ruled out, Sandoval-Guzman and colleagues went on to investigate other mechanisms that can stimulate de novo myogenesis in the axolotl. The authors

Bignell Jonathan Essay Example For Students

Bignell Jonathan Essay Most theorists of genre argue that generic norms and conventions are recognised and shared not only by theorists themselves, but also by audiences, readers and viewers (Neale Steve, Genre and Hollywood, 2000, p 54). Many theorists working on genre have argued about where genre categories had come from. These arguments discuss the factors of texts, production and audiences. Whether the texts in the narrative itself can be considered as naturally forming the genres, whether these categories are used by producers of programmes or if the categories are brought by audiences to the programmes they watch. Furthermore there is disagreement about whether the task of the theorist is to identify genres so that programmes can be evaluated, or whether the task is to describe how actual audiences make use of genre in their understanding of programmes. From an evaluative point of view, both television theorists and television fans might regard some programmes as transgressing the rules of genre and therefore evaluate these programmes as inferior (Rose, p 103). For example, fans of Battlestar Galactica regard some episodes as the real Battlestar Galactica and others as spoiled with irrelevant aspects such as soap opera or romance. By contrast, one might argue that programmes which contravene the boundaries of a genre are more important because the conventional rules of television genre are potentially engaging the audiences attention and therefore have a significant dimension. This dispute can be derived from the historical perception that genre applies most easily to mass-market popular culture texts, so the programmes that are within the boundaries of a genre can be seen as mechanically designed in some form. However, texts often participate in several genres at the same time as well as the fact that all texts contribute to genre to some extent. Genre can be about working against the genre conventions as well as with them, it is not only a way of attaching programmes down to one specific genre, but by exploring other notions and mixing the genres is what makes the programmes more enjoyable to watch and more interesting. The title sequences of programmes are sequences of signs which signify the boundaries between one part of the flow of television and those parts of the flow which precede and follow them (Holland Patricia, Television handbook, 1997 p78) In this respect, title sequences offer cues to viewers which enable them to identify the genre of a programme. The viewer will identify a programme in relation to its genre with the many different kinds of signs that a title sequence might contain. For example, showing the institutions such as parliament that are the creators of newsworthy events, the title sequence of news programmes often contain dramatic orchestral music and images representing the coverage of news events. But it is unusual for the components of programmes to go completely to a single genre. In news, for example, there are interviews between presenters and experts or officials that are coded in the same ways as interviews in sports programmes, say in comparison of BBC news and Match of the day live . The address to camera found in news programmes can also be seen in sports programmes, or quiz programmes. BBC news contains sequences of actuality footage accompanied by a voice-over, but similar sequences can be found in documentary, current affairs programmes, wildlife programmes and other factual genres. Although the content of news programmes is necessarily different in each programme because, by definition, the events in the news are new, the format of news programmes exhibits a strong degree of continuity. The separation of news programmes into separate items, the importance of the news presenter and reporters as a team which appears regularly in programmes, and the consistent use of settings such as the news studios, logos and graphics make todays news programme look very similar to yesterdays and tomorrows news. .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .postImageUrl , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:hover , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:visited , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:active { border:0!important; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:active , .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510 .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2b034130f5f1aa37f4f8ebb370876510:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Poetry Analysis Buffet Etiquette EssayTelevision police series personalise law and order in the personas of detectives and policemen, as do other genre programmes such as hospital drama. One of the difficulties in the study of genre in television is identifying which features of programmes are unique to a particular genre, to the extent that these features could form a list enabling the critic to establish the boundaries of a genre. In the BBC police drama series The Cops (1998) there is a consistent group of main characters who seem at first to be relatively conventional. Indeed, the programmes title is likely to trigger viewers generic knowledge of other television police series and set up a pattern of expectations. In the opening episode Mel, a young policewoman working with predominantly male colleagues, was introduced. Viewers also saw a young Asian policeman and a middle-aged veteran constable unhappy with the changes to policing, which he regarded with scepticism. These are familiar characters, and it is easy to see how storylines familiar in the police genre can develop around them. There could be tensions between Mel and her male colleagues, explorations of racism within the police institution itself and in the community which the Asian police officer deals with and conflicts between the middle-aged veteran, his younger colleagues and his superiors responsible for carrying out modern police policies. The members of the public with whom the police characters came most into conflict with were the inhabitants of a local housing estate and further storylines involving tensions between the police and the community offered conventional stories in the police genre. Problems of poverty, drugs, street crime and burglary, conflict between older and younger generations in the community and the difficult task of sustaining relationships between the police and people they grew up with while also enforcing law and order from the basis of the action in the episodes. But The Cops not only signalled conventional expectations of the police genre for the audience but also sought to manipulate these. The Cops was exciting television because of its negotiation with genre and the audience expectations which it mobilises.

Free Trade Agreement And Its Affect On Canadian Business Essays

Free Trade Agreement and Its Affect on Canadian Business With the coming of the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) there have been very serious implications for Canadian business and for that matter, Canada as a whole. Many aspects of the previous economic climate have changed such as the reduction or eliminatation of tariffs and the restrictions on subsidies to name only a few. There has been much heated debate on the pros and cons of this deal: whether Canada will prosper or become the 51st. American state. This paper will not take this approach to the issue of whether or not it is a wise agreement, but will look at what business can do to better itself with the existing FTA. If Canadian business is to survive and prosper in this radically changed North American and Global atmosphere of easier trading, then it must adapt. Some of the main areas that will have to be addressed is the need for more productive and efficient operations, a new focus by business on the new trading reality, and a change in policies by Government to enable Canada to function better with the FTA. The FTA stands to alter Canadian business which has grown rather relaxed and inefficient behind walls of tarrifs. While these may have initially spurred industry, they have after time encouraged complacency. With these rapidly disappearing walls, business will have to become "lean and mean" in order to compete in a very competitive global market. Looking at the present state of affairs our status in research and development (R&D), labour costs and expansion, there is much that must be done. Compared to the other industrialized western nations we lag far behind in nearly all areas. Take for example R&D. In 1990 Canada spent approximately 2.1% on R&D. Japan spent 5.6% and Germany 4.8% Even the US spend more at 3.1%. Given these statistics, it will be very difficult for Canada to compete in any form of new technology if all parties are on a level field with less protective trade barriers. Another reason for a dire need for an increase in efficiency is the trade relationship we are currently involved in. While countries in say the EEC are in more or less the same economic power bracket between Canada and the US, there is a major size difference. So if we are to have any hope of competing with a power so large clearly we must become more efficient even more so than other countries. Another key aspect which business must deal with is that of becoming better suited to dealing with the North American, and to a lesser extent, other foreign markets rather than only to Canadian or even in some cases, to provincial markets. Corporations which do so stand far better of to gain from the FTA than those that do not. It would be wise for the example of Northern Telcom Ltd. to be followed. Where production and market presence are global and not just Canadian. Unfortunately many companies are not following this example and are still very much "Canadian" in their outlook. According to a Toronto Management consulting firm - Ernst and Young 62% of all Canadian manufacturers have no significant exports to the US. As Al Lituka a Professor at York, says: "The FTA has gven a strong phsycological impetus to thinking North American". 1 One trend of becoming better oriented for new markets is that of specialization. By taking a "niche" in the market and becoming very profficiant in it has proven to be very successful, as has also been the case with Northern Telecom Ltd. with its many hi- tech telecommunications equipment. Another example, albiet one in Europe, is Aerospatible, a French areospace firm. Through creating a superior product the Airbus commercial passenger plane, they have been able to capture a large share of the market even though France has never been considered a large power in production before and lacks the manufactuing ability of the US or Germany. Another trend is that of US and Canadian firms banding together. This makes a great deal of sense since not only can they handle the North American market in a more unified fashion, but they are stronger and thus more able to compete with Japanese and EEC competitors. Many multi-national corporations are following this continental incorporation to take advantage of the realigned tarrifs. One such company is Procter and Gamble. Before the FTA they had separate US and Canadian offices for marketing and production which resulted in a considerable duplication of tasks.

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome This paper will discuss the efficacy and advantages of inserting foreign genes into the chloroplastic genome instead of the nuclear genome. It will also cover in depth elaboration of relevant issues by using named examples.In DNA, adjacent nucleotides are joined by the phosphate between the 5 carbon atom of the sugar of one nucleotide and the 3 carbon atom of the sugar in the adjoining nucleotide. In DNA, one side of the double helix terminates in a 3 end while the other side, aligned in the opposite direction (antiparallel), terminates in a 5 end. To these projecting 3 ends, a short series of identical nucleotides containing adenine were attached through the activity of another enzyme. Another batch of DNA was treated in a likewise manner, except that nucleotides containing thymine were added instead of adenine.(Avril, 187-94)When these two samples of DNA were mixed, the complementary tails of A- and T-bearing nucleotides became joined by hydrogen bonding. This combined the once sep arate fragments into long, interconnected chains. DNA ligase was then added to form bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups. The two DNA strands were now one. It was certainly intriguing that one could now cut up DNA into unpredictable heterogeneous fragments and randomly stitch them back together. However, for further insights into the organization of DNA and its genes that is, the determination of precise nucleotide  sequences very specific nucleases would have to be found. The prevailing opinion was that such specific DNA-cutting capability did not exist in nature. The only clue to the possibility that more specific nucleases might exist came from observations beginning as early as 1953 that when DNA molecules from E. coli were introduced into another slightly different form of E. coli they seldom functioned genetically. They were quickly broken down into smaller fragments. This apparently was part of a system that had evolved in bacteria to protect them against the entra nce of foreign DNA. In addition to all of the other more obvious forms of competition in nature, there is a constant invisible struggle played out in the microscopic world, in this case between bacteria and bacteriophages. Darwins natural selection is recreated here on a minute scale.(David, 131-44) First, bacteria can be grown under controlled conditions, rapidly and in enormous numbers. Overnight, a few cells will multiply into literally billions. It is very important to understand that a bacterial cell ordinarily reproduces simply by copying itself. Assuming that no mutations occur in the cells, all the descendants of that one cell are identical. Such a population of cells originating from a single cell is termed a clone and the process of producing that clone is referred to as cloning the cell. The DNA in a typical bacterial cell exists in two forms. One is the single bacterial chromosome which, unlike the chromosomes in our cells, is in the form of a circular molecule. The DNA of all other organisms can be likened to a long string. In bacteria, the ends of the string are joined, forming a circle. In addition to the DNA in the bacterial chromosome, DNA also occurs in bacteria in the form of plasmids. These, like the bacterial chromosome, are also circular DNA molecules, but much smaller. When the bacterial cell divides, the bacterial chromosome replicates and one chromosome is passed on to the new cell. Likewise, each of the plasmids replicate and half are delivered to the next generation. The plasmids are unique, independent, self-replicating DNA molecules which can exist only within the living bacterial cell.Plasmids can easily be isolated from bacteria by breaking open the cells with enzymes which break down the cell wall. The resulting mix is centrifuged.The heavier chromosomal DNA, termed genomic DNA, as well as cell fragments will go to the bottom. (James, 44-49) This leaves a relatively clean suspension of plasmids near the top of the centrifuge tub e. These tiny circles of DNA are actually not vital to the survival of the bacterium. The plasmids can be removed from a bacterial cell and the cell will function normally. However, some plasmids do contain genes which confer a marked advantage to the cell under certain conditions. For example, the fatal poison of lockjaw is a product of genes in plasmids of the tetanus bacterium. E. coli has plasmids that cause one form of the infamous travelers diarrhea. Probably the most widely studied plasmid genes are the ones conferring resistance to specific antibiotics. Certain bacteria can produce enzymes coded for by plasmid genes that break down antibiotics such as penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, or chloramphenicol. In nature, this gives the bacteria a defense mechanism against naturally occurring antibiotics. In the tissues of an infected patient, bacteria with these plasmids may overcome the administration of therapeutic antibiotics. Such resistant infections have become a major m edical problem. This seemingly esoteric description of bacterial life contains another key element in our story. These bacterial plasmids are used as the DNA molecules into which other DNA fragments cut out by a restriction enzyme can be placed. Going back to our original principle, if we cut up any DNA with a restriction enzyme and cut plasmids with the same enzyme, mix the cut plasmids and the cut DNA in the presence of DNA ligase, plasmid-foreign DNA chimeras will be formed. Gene cloning now solves these problems. To clone a gene means simply to obtain a minute, pure sample of the gene and make lots more of it, as if one had a document and made many identical ones by photocopying it. The photocopying of genes is accomplished by first joining a few of the genes to vectors such as plasmids and inserting the vectors, now carrying the gene, into bacteria or other suitable cells. We have introduced the basic principles of gene cloning already. In that process, so-called foreign DNA, t he DNA we have removed from an organism, is inserted into the vector molecule, such as a plasmid, to create a DNA chimera. The building of such composites or artificial recombinant molecules has also been termed genetic engineering or gene manipulation. This procedure has also been referred to as molecular cloning or gene cloning because a population of genetically identical bacteria, all containing the desired DNA, can be grown in great numbers, thereby copying the DNA as often as the cells divide. (Roger, 34-38) What is very significant is that these chimeras within the bacterial cells may be able to copy not only themselves but actually produce a specific gene product in large amounts. This approach has already been utilized in the commercial production of human insulin, growth hormone, and the antiviral protein interferon. All of these can now be made by bacteria, because the human genes that regulate their synthesis have been isolated and cloned in bacteria. The bacterial cells , grown in vast numbers, obedient to the commands of their genes, now make a human gene product. Human gene products derived from genes isolated and cloned during the Human Genome Project will undoubtedly also be used for the benefit of humanity, particularly in the cure and prevention of disease. Consider the explicit and implicit problems. Our genes are part of the chromosomes which function within the nucleus of each cell. Every defective gene is therefore inside each diploid somatic (nonreproductive) cell and distributed at random in the haploid gametes. The aim of gene therapy is to replace or supplement the defective genetic information with normal, functional genes. How could we possibly get at those undesirable genes, hidden as they are inside the trillions of cells that constitute the human body? The actual physical removal and replacement of genes in the bodys cells is not possible. However, ample precedent exists for the introduction of normal genes into cells where they become part of the functional genome of the cell without necessitating the removal or repair of a resident nonfunctional gene.(Victor, 910-915)For there reside the genes, the chromosomal subunits in which lies the code that determines a lot more than our hair and eye color, our sex, or our height, and right- or left-handedness. They are the direct cause of many diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia, regulate our tendency toward cancer, heart attacks, or Alzheimers disease . . . in fact, humans are afflicted by more than 3000 known inherited diseases. Similarly a new frontier in molecular biology is upon us. We are only now approaching through the Human Genome Project and all of the research that it will inspire an intimate understanding of our genes. This will bring with it a power over human life which must be used wisely. There is much more to be said on this theme in later chapters, so let us return to the drama at hand: the revolutionary discovery of the struct ure and essence of the gene.